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RSS订阅原创 分享一些高质量的博客
MySQLOurMySQL 很专业的MySQL技术分享博客 高性能MySQL，PHP架构 MySQL&PHP技术分享 PHP雪候鸟的博客 PHP大牛鸟哥的博客，身为PHPER必须收藏膜拜 风之缘的博客 其中PHP之道很不错 专注PHP... 设计除PHP之外比较多内容 神仙的仙居 谢振业，PHP业内比较知名人士，博客内容质量很高 goosman PHP扩展开发 Git
2015-03-16 14:44:31
807
原创 服务器压力测试的几个指标
吞吐率（request per seconds)所谓吞吐率，指的是服务器处理并发请求的能力，计算公式为总请求数 / 完成所有请求花费的总时间单位是 reqs/s特别需要注意的是，吞吐率不能脱离并发数(并发用户数)而单独存在，在不同的并发数情况下，即使总请求数一样，并发数也可能会不一样并发连接数(The number of concurrent connections)
2015-03-16 14:42:03
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原创 优化你的css
转自 优化你的css 感觉很有用，收藏一下系列概述在移动web兴起的年代，速度优化重新被大家重视起来，因为手机的网络环境和性能比PC端差了很多，估计大家也能感觉到用手机打开网页的时候，能明显感觉到页面蜗牛般的速度。这个系列的优化会以移动环境为基础，当然绝大多数规则也同样适合PC端。优化的基本原则速度优化有一些基本思路，提前总结一下按需加载(只加载你需要的) 并行(让串行
2015-03-16 14:35:18
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原创 一步步搭建物联网系统——无处不在的三剑客
无处不在的三剑客这时我们终于了解了我们的三剑客，他们也就这么可以结合到一起了，HTML+Javascript+CSS是这一切的基础。而我们用到的其他语言如PHP、Python、Ruby等等到最后都会变成上面的结果，当然还有Coffeescript之类的语言都是以此为基础，这才是我们需要的知识。Hello,Geek有了一些些基础之后，我们终于能试着去写一些程序了。也是时候去创建一个像样的
2015-03-09 01:52:04
641
原创 【译】有人向你反馈了一个bug
原文地址When someone gives you a bug (long)译文(我是一个前端开发者，但我想这个故事对任何开发者都会引起共鸣的)有人向你反馈了一个bug。 “26楼会议室的灯亮着。它需要被熄灭。”bug的备注里写道“你应该能在5分钟内搞定，只要按一下开关就好了。“你去了26楼的会议室。灯的确亮着，但房间里没有灯的开关。所以，你准备安装一个。但设计师
2015-03-09 00:53:46
384
原创 webstorm、phpstorm、idea等使用技巧记录
概述此文章用来记录jetbrain系列工具使用的小技巧。如果没有特别说明的话，这些技巧在webstorm、phpstorm、idea中是通用且是跨平台的。live edit功能与浏览器实现同步实现步骤live edit是一个免刷新的功能，能捕捉到页面的改动（css、html、js改动），然后浏览器自动刷新，这样提高了开发的效率。很赞的一个功能，唯一不足的是，要安装JB插件到浏览器中，对
2015-02-04 16:34:56
2005
原创 border-radius 移动之伤
border-radius我相信对于老一辈的前端们有着特殊的感情，在经历了没有圆角的蛮荒时代，到如今 CSS3 遍地开花，我们还是很幸福的。然而即使到了三星大脸流行时代，border-radius在移动端的表现依旧差强人意，主要有两点问题：Android 2.3 自带浏览器不支持 %通常我们实现一个正圆只需要border-radius: 50%即可，大致代码如下：.foo {
2015-02-04 16:23:48
476
原创 撰写可测试的 JavaScript
转自 勾三股四 - 撰写可测试的 JavaScript这篇文章算是 A List Apart 系列文章中，包括滑动门在内，令我印象最深刻的文章之一。最近有时间翻译了一下，分享给更多人，希望对大家有所帮助！我们已经面对到了这一窘境：一开始我们写的 JavaScript 只有区区几行代码，但是它的代码量一直在增长，我们不断的加参数、加条件。最后，粗 bug 了…… 我们才不得不收拾这个烂摊
2015-01-24 02:20:31
391
原创 关于 MySQL root 账号的默认密码
Ubuntu Server 12.04 LTS，用 apt-get 安装 MySQL 过程中没有提示设置 root 账号的密码，安装完成后发现 root 空密码无法登录。解决方案：其实 debian 系的 MySQL 安装过程中会设置一个默认的账户，这个文件里保存了默认账号的信息cat /etc/mysql/debian.cnf注意：这里的密码是明文的！然后我们就可以用这个
2015-01-24 02:04:37
1700
原创 PHP项目性能优化
PHP项目性能优化的三个层次PHP语言层级 PHP周边（服务器，数据库，webserver) PHP底层 语言层级尽量使用PHP原生函数和常量，类如果要实现的功能有原生PHP函数，则不要自己用PHP实现 尽量使用性能更高的内置函数比如isset和array_key_exists都可以使用，则使用isset 尽量不要使用错误抑制符@ 不要使用PHP处理cpu密集的业务，交
2015-01-24 01:36:35
341
原创 遇见程序员男友
“你爱我吗？”“爱。”“有多爱？”“比爱1024还爱你。”听到这句话，我有过1024次拍死我的程序员男友的冲动，最终看在他脸上写满诚恳的样子的份上，还是只朝他撇了撇嘴。如你所看见的：我的男朋友是一名程序员，一名因为长期写代码而会让人产生连他的那张脸上也写满代码的错觉的程序员。遇见他之前，我并不太明白程序员是什么东西，对于他自称的“极客”，更是一脸茫然。“极客？什
2015-01-10 00:28:12
422
原创 CentOS 6.6 Minimal设置VirtualBox的共享文件夹
主机系统：Win7 64-bit 旗舰版虚拟系统：CentOS 6.6 Minimal 64-bit功能需求：CentOS 6.6 Minimal 设置 VirtualBox（版本号：4.3.20） 共享文件夹写在这里，主要记录一下遇到的问题，解决方案，以及相关的操作命令，供自己日后回忆，也供有需要者参考。CentOS 6.6 Minimal 版本默认是没有桌面的，装好之后就是直接
2015-01-10 00:09:25
426
原创 预装win8安装 ubuntu 14.04TLS双系统
机型 联想y400预装windows 8.1 64位安装 ubuntu 14.04TLS经过了一番折腾之后也算是成功安装，本文只为帮助他人准备工作：1. 下载64位ubuntu 镜像文件2. 一个4GU盘3. 使用UltraISO把镜像文件制作成启动盘4. 关闭win8的快速启动控制面板或者右击windows开始键，其中找到电源选项5.插上U盘重
2015-01-07 18:14:52
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原创 深入理解 Laravel Eloquent（一）——基本概念及用法
原文发表在我的个人网站：深入理解 Laravel Eloquent（一）——基本概念及用法 在本系列文章中，我将跟大家一起学习 Eloquent 的基本用法，探索 Eloquent 的各种高级功能，理解 Eloquent 背后的运行原理，并最终达到深入理解、灵活使用 Eloquent 的目的。本系列教程是 Laravel 4 系列入门教程（一）【最适合中国人的Laravel教程】的扩展篇，
2015-01-07 18:04:13
477
原创 关于IE
所有的都是建立在浏览器的ie，也是慢慢收集，慢慢整理1.判断浏览器是ievar isIE = @cc_on!false;alert(isIE); //true;2.关于getAttribute()在ie浏览器的第二个参数，这是微软给出的解释3.转来的一个判断浏览器 ie678 = !+"\v1" ; ie678 = !-[1,];//IE9预览版中失
2015-01-07 17:39:40
350
原创 “出错了”和报告Bug的艺术——转给产品和测试的看看，哭瞎~
“出错了。”没有那句话能像“出错了”一样让程序员/开发者如此沮丧，心里翻江倒海，怒火一点即燃，还要死掉一大片脑细胞。这句生硬的开场白通常标志着让开发者恐惧的长时间排错工作要开始了。在我的职业生涯中，我就进行过好几次这样的对话：“出错了。”“什么出错了？”“网站。”“网站什么地方出错了?”“我不确定。你把它弄好就是了。“对于很多的非技术人员来说，这句话在逻
2015-01-07 17:09:22
399
原创 Queries to view Alert Log content And Alert Location
Quering alert log using SQL queryOracle 11g开始，提供了X$DBGALERTEXT，可以用来使用sql访问数据库alert日志，在不方便直接访问服务器时，提供了另外的方式访问数据库alert日志。X$DBGALERTEXT的定义如下：SYS> desc X$DBGALERTEXT Name
2015-01-07 16:58:11
291
原创 Linux学习笔记：4.Vim编辑器（1）
Vi/Vim概述Linux用户经常需要对系统配置文件进行文本编辑，所以至少掌握一种文本编辑器，首选编辑器是Vi/Vim。几乎任何一个发行版都有Vi或者Vim编辑器。Vi编辑器可以对文本进行编辑、删除、查找和替换、文本块操作等，全部操作都是在命令模式下进行的。Vi有两种工作模式：命令模式和输入模式。Vim是Vi的加强版，比Vi更容易使用。Vi的命令几乎全部都可以在Vim上使用，安装了
2015-01-07 16:46:39
359
原创 javadoc总结
思考了一晚上,写下总结,在此之前,需要读者读过《java核心技术 基础篇(第8版)》,在pdf版本150的页,如果你没有这本书,可以从这里下载,这是我的网盘百度云其实虽然书中提到了很多知识点,不过还是有些需要动手去做才会发现问题,例如,我用intellij 14的文档生成器功能老是无法指定overview.html.最后不得已在命令行手动输入命令.先列出我测试用的文件吧.下面是
2015-01-07 14:52:55
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原创 find -exec 与 find - xargs 的差别
最近我想统计下，家目录下各文件（夹）的硬盘占用情况，所以用了这个命令：find -maxdepth 1 | xargs du -sh返回的结果是，整个家目录的总大小，而不是预期的每个文件的大小。之后换用了find -maxdepth 1 -exec du -sh {} \;就能得出每个文件的大小。为什么使用find | xargs得出的结果跟find -exec不一样呢？一个问题是
2015-01-07 14:37:25
428
原创 chrome插件one-read开发1-准备
阅读我的博客文章：chrome插件one-read开发:准备 前言为啥要做这个，因为我原本想用chrome做一个书签管理的东西，但是很久没有碰过chrome的插件开发了。所以先做一个简单的，来熟悉下文档。插件试用在写这片文章前，我已经基本上完成了version1的编写点击这里可以得到相应的试用页面，里面会有相关的安装和使用方法。 点击这里获取相关代码 cod
2015-01-07 14:22:36
489
原创 页面加载优化
目前个人使用的一些方法1，减少代码冗余碎片2，压缩、合并js,css文件，减少http请求文件次数和长度3，把布局样式直接写在html文件里4，图片压缩（服务端）5，先加载文字，在加载图片
2015-01-06 13:46:34
314
原创 （转载）ios开发知识总结 — 上
转 据说是iOS开发一年总结的笔记，有空看看iphone开发笔记退回输入键盘 - (BOOL) textFieldShouldReturn:(id)textField{ [textField resignFirstResponder];}CGRectCGRect frame = CGRectMake (orig
2015-01-06 13:34:32
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原创 跟踪model中属性（值）的变更
此文翻译自Reading Rails - Change Tracking，限于本人水平，翻译不当之处，敬请指教！我们今天来看看Rails是如何追踪model里边属性的变更的。person = Person.find(8)person.name = "Mortimer"person.name_changed? #=> trueperson.name_was
2015-01-06 13:24:18
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原创 表达式求解（非一位数）
#include #include #include typedef struct dd{int i;struct dd * next;}woca;typedef struct aa{char i;struct aa* next; }dota;void create(woca**fist){ *fist = (woca*
2015-01-06 13:13:15
304
原创 第5届rails girls直播贴
还记得去年SegmentFault给大家带来的rails girls的活动直播吗？今年又来啦~本地活动在亿景大厦5楼，硬创邦举行。/本帖采用倒序，实时更新/吃完午饭，有些教练在和女学员们沟通做网站，有些在闲聊休息有些 ...注孤身的教练，自己趴着进入了午休 ......教练手把手教学的挺认真的 ... 恩 ...现场的吃的喝的也是满满哒随机速配，每位
2015-01-06 13:03:12
285
原创 测试
在大数据推荐算法中，经常使用大规模逻辑回归算法进行模型训练。在用owlqn方法解稀疏逻辑回归问题时，每一步迭代需要计算损失函数f(w)的“虚梯度”作为下降方向。请问下面哪一个是虚梯度的计算公式？$$ \diamond_i f(w) = \begin{cases} \partial_i^- f(w) & \text{ if } \partial_i^- f(w) > 0 \ \partial
2015-01-06 12:53:54
331
原创 将JSON对象格式化输出（上篇）
UPDATE：经公子大大提醒，使用JSON API就可以做到下面的效果。（这后面的内容不用看了）最近在使用Node.js开发项目，由于JavaScript内置了对JSON的支持，自然而然想到了使用JSON编写配置文件。// app.json{"mode": "prod", "log_path": "/data"}; //还有更多内容var app = require('
2015-01-06 12:42:08
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原创 [零基础学python]编写类之四再论继承
在上一讲代码的基础上，做进一步修改，成为了如下程序，请看官研习这个程序：#!/usr/bin/env python#coding:utf-8class Person: def __init__(self, name, email): self.name = name self.email = emailclass Program
2015-01-06 12:32:32
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原创 openswan在NAT环境且开启DPD时双方SA生存周期不同可能存在问题
ipsec SA存在第1阶段SAISAKMP SA生存周期和第2阶段IPsec SA生存周期ISAKMP SA生存周期以两端中配置时间最小为准IPsec SA生存周期两端各自以本端配置时间为准ipsec DPD是一种探测对端是否存活的机制每一个IPsec SA对应一个DPD，即每一条隧道对应一个DPD如果ISAKMP SA不存，DPD将无法工作，因为DPD发包时
2015-01-06 12:15:59
791
原创 折半，二分查找问题
问题：循环有序数组查找问题一个循环有序数组（如：3,4,5,6,7,8,9,0,1,2），不知道其最小值的位置，要查找任一数值的位置。要求算法时间复杂度为log2(n)。问题分析：我们可以把循环有序数组分为左右两部分（以mid = （low+high）/ 2为界），由循环有序数组的特点知，左右两部分必有一部分是有序的，我们可以找出有序的这部分，然后看所查找元素是否在有序部分，若在，则直
2015-01-05 22:05:59
297
原创 开启新旅程
不知不觉中已经工作了四个月，虽然没有接触到特别挑战的工作，但已经感觉自己和别人的差距有多大。感觉自己和别人交流的时候，反应特别迟钝，而且对自己要做的东西不是很敏感。年中和经理沟通了一下，大概总结一下：对自己所做的东西需要进行梳理，要做到别人问的时候马上能反应过来。就像搜索一样，不能每次都遍历一遍，要建立某种数据结构，快速查找。 对导师的依赖较强。这让我想到了小时候对我爸的依赖，以前只要有不
2015-01-05 21:54:28
461
原创 存储技术之RAID
原文：存储技术之RAID存储技术如今已经越来越重要，而且在云计算时代，涌现出了很多专注于云存储的厂商。存储技术本身也十分复杂，从硬件到协议到软件到接口几乎覆盖计算机科学的方方面面。笔者借助《大话存储II》这本书，开始了这块知识空白的补充。本文的图片均来源于网络。一块磁盘的容量有限，速度有限，如果需要更大的存储空间，更快的速度怎么办呢？而且如果数据可靠性要求很高，如果一块磁盘坏了，是否有办法
2015-01-05 21:41:42
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原创 在 Windows Phone 上构建一个 Hello World 程序
Date:2014.8.10此篇教程是给纯粹的初学者（absolute beginner）看的，如果您已掌握其中技巧就请不要看了。OK，我们需要工具 IDE 也就是 Visual Studio 2013 ，要想进行下面的操作还需要 Windows Phone 的开发者证书，关于获取证书我将会另外写一篇博客来说明。这是启动画面。新建一个工程记住要在这里选择 Win
2015-01-05 21:30:16
367
原创 加密方式升级，爱加密六种加密方式随心选择
随着全球移动互联网的高速发展，从事移动应用开发的人群数量也在快速增长，同时移动应用恶意程序数量也急剧增加，截至到2014年1月，全球恶意安卓应用的数量已经突破1000万大关。爱加密通过大量研究发现，这些恶意程序的行为主要包括恶意扣费、恶意破解与剽窃、信息窃取、远程控制、资费消耗。移动恶意软件数量暴增，安卓APK加密保护迫在眉睫为了更高效、便捷地保护开发者和用户的利益，爱加密（www.ijiami.
2015-01-05 21:19:26
592
原创 关于dnsmasq的使用配置和文档翻译
dnsmasq是什么我就不说了，请自行百度。目前我需要使用的用途是：1.dhcp（分配一个或者多个内网ip地址）2.dns（锁定解析，改变解析指向和dns缓存）3.简便，一次满足dhcp和dns 2个功能备注：dhcp是用udp 67端口的，dns是用tcp/udp 53端口的，有iptables的请自行处理如何安装：因为他方便小巧，性价比高，所以我yum了
2015-01-05 21:06:52
2006
原创 使用 psutil 和 MongoDB 做系统监控
注：原文地址 psutil and MongoDB for System Monitoring这篇入门文章描述了怎样创建一系列的图表来监控一台或多台服务器的负载。使用 Python（psutil 和 bottle），MongoDB 和 jquery。不管你使用什么样的数据库或 WEB 框架，思路都是一样的。在最后，你将有一个 web 页面为每台服务器展示图表，图表中显示了 cpu， m
2015-01-05 20:55:22
937
原创 个推服务端api使用手册进阶
前言上一片初级手册里给大家演示了如何使用个推服务端的sdk调用个推推送服务的api。相信许多朋友已经尝试成功了。但除了能够完成传送消息到手机上的基本功能以外，开发者一定会有很多定制化的需求。本篇给大家提供一些进阶使用的tips。定制化推送展示定制化个推推送服务的客户端展示定制化需求主要通过它的推送模板来实现。上一篇提到，调用推送方法前需要先构造一个template。『 新建一个
2015-01-05 20:41:18
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原创 【tulip】 - 多进程的版本
前面的网络编程的例子使用多进程也是可以实现的：import socketimport osdef main(): listen_sock = socket.socket(family=socket.AF_INET, type=socket.SOCK_STREAM, proto=socket.IPPROTO_IP) listen_sock.setsockopt(s
2015-01-05 20:30:34
331
原创 [零基础学python]用while来循环
while，翻译成中文是“当...的时候”，这个单词在英语中，常常用来做为时间状语，while ... someone do somthing，这种类型的说法是有的。在python中，它也有这个含义，不过有点区别的是，“当...时候”这个条件成立在一段范围或者时间间隔内，从而在这段时间间隔内让python做好多事情。就好比这样一段情景：while 年龄大于60岁：-------->当年龄大于6
2015-01-05 20:19:03
760
opto-mechanical systems design.third edition.Paul.R.Y
Table of Contents
Chapter 1
The Opto-Mechanical Design Process
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Conceptualization
1.3 Performance Specifications and Design Constraints
1.4 Preliminary Design
1.5 Design Analysis and Computer Modeling
1.6 Error Budgets and Tolerances
1.7 Experimental Modeling
1.8 Finalizing the Design
1.9 Design Reviews
1.10 Manufacturing the Instrument
1.11 Evaluating the End Product
1.12 Documenting the Design
References
Chapter 2
Environmental Influences
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Parameters of Concern
2.2.1 Temperature
2.2.2 Pressure
2.2.3 Static Strains and Stresses
2.2.4 Vibration
2.2.5 Shock
2.2.6 Humidity
2.2.7 Corrosion
2.2.8 Contamination
2.2.9 Fungus
2.2.10 Abrasion and Erosion
2.2.11 High-Energy Radiation and Micrometeorites
2.2.12 Laser Damage to Optical Components
2.2.12.1 Fundamental Mechanisms
2.2.12.2 Surfaces and Mirrors
2.2.12.3 Materials and Measurements
2.2.12.4 Thin Films
2.3 Environmental Testing of Optics
References
Chapter 3
Opto-Mechanical Characteristics of Materials
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Materials for Refracting Optics
3.2.1 General Considerations
xv
3.2.2 Optical Glass
3.2.3 Optical Plastics
3.2.4 Optical Crystals
3.2.4.1 Alkali and Alkaline Earth Halides
3.2.4.2 Glasses and Other Oxides
3.2.4.3 Semiconductors
3.2.4.4 Chalcogenides
3.2.4.5 Coefficients Related to Optical Material Thermal Behavior
3.3 Materials for Reflecting Optics
3.3.1 Smoothness
3.3.2 Stability
3.3.3 Rigidity
3.4 Materials for Mechanical Components
3.4.1 Aluminum
3.4.1.1 Alloy 1100
3.4.1.2 Alloy 2024
3.4.1.3 Alloy 6061
3.4.1.4 Alloy 7075........................................................................................118
3.4.1.5 Alloy 356..........................................................................................118
3.4.2 Beryllium ..........................................................................................................118
3.4.3 Copper ..............................................................................................................121
3.4.3.1 Alloy C10100 ..................................................................................122
3.4.3.2 Alloy C17200 ..................................................................................122
3.4.3.3 Alloy C360 ......................................................................................122
3.4.3.4 Alloy C260 ......................................................................................122
3.4.3.5 Glidcop™ ........................................................................................122
3.4.4 Invar and Super Invar ........................................................................................122
3.4.5 Magnesium ........................................................................................................123
3.4.6 Carbon Steel ......................................................................................................123
3.4.7 Corrosion-Resistant Steel..................................................................................123
3.4.8 Titanium ............................................................................................................123
3.4.9 Silicon Carbide..................................................................................................124
3.4.10 Composite Materials ........................................................................................124
3.5 Adhesives ..........................................................................................................................128
3.5.1 Optical Cements ................................................................................................128
3.5.1.1 Solvent Loss Cements ......................................................................129
3.5.1.2 Thermoplastic Cements....................................................................129
3.5.1.3 Thermosetting Cements....................................................................129
3.5.1.4 Photosetting Cements ......................................................................130
3.5.2 Physical Characteristics ....................................................................................131
3.5.3 Transmission Characteristics ............................................................................131
3.5.4 Cementing Optical Surfaces..............................................................................132
3.5.5 Structural Adhesives..........................................................................................133
3.5.5.1 Epoxies ............................................................................................134
3.5.5.2 Urethane Adhesives ..........................................................................134
3.5.5.3 Cyanoacrylate Adhesives ................................................................137
3.6 Sealants.............................................................................................................................137
3.7 Special Coatings for Opto-Mechanical Materials ............................................................140
3.7.1 Protective Coatings............................................................................................140
3.7.1.1 Paints ................................................................................................140
3.7.1.2 Platings and Anodic Coatings ..........................................................141
3.7.1.3 Proprietary Coatings ........................................................................141
3.7.2 Optical Black Coatings ....................................................................................141
3.7.3 Coatings to Improve Surface Smoothness ........................................................143
3.7.3.1 Nickel ..............................................................................................143
3.7.3.2 Alumiplate®......................................................................................143
3.8 Techniques for Manufacturing Opto-Mechanical Parts ....................................................143
3.8.1 Manufacturing Optical Parts ............................................................................143
3.8.2 Manufacturing Mechanical Parts ......................................................................146
3.8.2.1 Machining Methods..........................................................................146
3.8.2.2 Casting Methods ..............................................................................147
3.8.2.3 Forging and Extrusion Methods ......................................................147
3.8.2.4 Fabricating and Curing Composites ................................................149
3.8.3 General Comments Regarding Manufacturing Processes ................................150
References .....................................................................................................................................151
Chapter 4
Mounting Individual Lenses
4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................157
4.2 Considerations of Centered Optics ..................................................................................157
4.3 Cost Impacts of Fabrication Tolerances............................................................................167
4.4 Lens Weight and Center of Gravity Location ..................................................................173
4.4.1 Lens Weight Estimation ....................................................................................174
4.4.2 Lens Center of Gravity Location ......................................................................177
4.5 Mounting Individual Low-Precision Lenses ....................................................................178
4.5.1 Spring Mountings..............................................................................................178
4.5.2 Burnished Cell Mountings ................................................................................179
4.5.3 Snap Ring Mountings........................................................................................180
4.6 Mountings for Lenses with Curved Rims ........................................................................183
4.7 Mountings Interfacing with Spherical Surfaces................................................................184
4.7.1 General Considerations ....................................................................................184
4.7.2 The Threaded Retaining Ring Mounting ..........................................................187
4.7.3 Continuous Flange Mounting............................................................................192
4.7.4 Multiple Cantilevered Spring Clip Mounting ..................................................194
4.7.5 Opto-Mechanical Interface Types ....................................................................197
4.7.5.1 Sharp Corner Interface ....................................................................197
4.7.5.2 Tangential Interface..........................................................................197
4.7.5.3 Toroidal Interface ............................................................................198
4.7.5.4 Spherical Interface............................................................................198
4.7.5.5 Interfaces on Bevels ........................................................................198
4.8 Elastomeric Mountings for Lenses ..................................................................................202
4.9 Mounting Lenses on Flexures ..........................................................................................204
4.10 Alignment of the Individual Lens ....................................................................................207
4.11 Mounting Plastic Lenses ..................................................................................................222
References .....................................................................................................................................226
Chapter 5
Mounting Multiple Lenses
5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................229
5.2 Multielement Spacing Considerations ..............................................................................229
5.3 Examples of Lens Assemblies with No Moving Parts......................................................235
5.3.1 Military Telescope Eyepiece ............................................................................235
5.3.2 Military Telescope Objective ............................................................................237
5.3.3 Fixed-Focus Relay Lens....................................................................................237
5.3.4 Aerial Photographic Objective Lens ................................................................239
5.3.5 Low-Distortion Projection Lens........................................................................240
5.3.6 Motion Picture Projection Lens ........................................................................241
5.3.7 Collimator Designed for High-Shock Loading ................................................241
5.3.8 Large Astrographic Objective ..........................................................................243
5.3.9 Infrared Sensor Lens ........................................................................................245
5.4 Examples of Lens Assemblies Containing Moving Parts ................................................245
5.4.1 Objectives Designed for Mid-IR Applications..................................................245
5.4.2 Internally Focusing Photographic Lenses ........................................................247
5.4.3 Binocular Focus Mechanisms ..........................................................................248
5.4.4 Zoom Lenses ....................................................................................................252
5.5 Lathe Assembly Techniques..............................................................................................259
5.6 Microscope Objectives ......................................................................................................264
5.7 Assemblies Using Plastic Parts ........................................................................................267
5.8 Liquid Coupling of Lenses................................................................................................270
5.9 Catadioptric Assemblies....................................................................................................272
5.10 Alignment of Multi-Lens Assemblies ..............................................................................282
5.11 Alignment of Reflecting Telescope Systems ....................................................................297
References .....................................................................................................................................298
Chapter 6
Mounting Windows and Filters
6.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................301
6.2 Conventional Window Mounts..........................................................................................302
6.3 Special Window Mounts ..................................................................................................303
6.4 Mounts for Shells and Domes ..........................................................................................310
6.5 Conformal Windows..........................................................................................................315
6.6 Filter Mounts ....................................................................................................................320
6.7 Windows Subject to a Pressure Differential ....................................................................323
6.7.1 Survival..............................................................................................................323
6.7.2 Optical Performance Degradation ....................................................................327
References .....................................................................................................................................329
Chapter 7
Designing and Mounting Prisms
7.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................331
7.2 Geometric Relationships ..................................................................................................331
7.2.1 Refraction and Reflection at Prism Surfaces ....................................................331
7.2.2 Aberrations Caused by Prisms and Plates ........................................................332
7.2.3 Beam Displacements Caused by Prisms and Plates ........................................332
7.2.4 Tunnel Diagrams ..............................................................................................333
7.2.5 Total Internal Reflection....................................................................................336
7.3 Designs for Typical Prisms ..............................................................................................337
7.3.1 The Right-Angle Prism ....................................................................................338
7.3.2 The Beam Splitter (or Beam Combiner) Cube Prism ......................................338
7.3.3 The Amici Prism ..............................................................................................338
7.3.4 The Porro Prism ................................................................................................339
7.3.5 The Abbe Version of the Porro Prism ..............................................................339
7.3.6 The Porro Erecting System ..............................................................................342
7.3.7 The Abbe Erecting System................................................................................344
7.3.8 The Rhomboid Prism ........................................................................................345
7.3.9 The Dove Prism ................................................................................................346
7.3.10 Double-Dove Prism ..........................................................................................346
7.3.11 The Penta Prism ................................................................................................347
7.3.12 The Roof Penta Prism ......................................................................................348
7.3.13 The Amici/Penta and Right-Angle/Roof Penta Erecting Systems....................349
7.3.14 The Reversion, Abbe Type A, and Abbe Type B Prisms ..................................349
7.3.15 The Delta Prism ................................................................................................350
7.3.16 The Pechan Prism..............................................................................................352
7.3.17 The Schmidt Prism............................................................................................355
7.3.18 The 45° Bauernfeind Prism ..............................................................................358
7.3.19 The Frankford Arsenal Prisms Nos. 1 and 2 ....................................................358
7.3.20 The Leman Prism ..............................................................................................359
7.3.21 An Internally Reflecting Axicon Prism ............................................................359
7.3.22 The Cube-Corner Prism ....................................................................................359
7.3.23 An Ocular Prism for a Coincidence Rangefinder ............................................361
7.3.24 A Biocular Prism System..................................................................................365
7.3.25 Dispersing Prisms..............................................................................................366
7.3.26 Thin-Wedge Prism Systems ..............................................................................368
7.3.26.1 The Thin Wedge ..............................................................................368
7.3.26.2 The Risley Wedge System................................................................368
7.3.26.3 The Longitudinally Sliding Wedge ..................................................370
7.3.26.4 A Focus-Adjusting Wedge System ..................................................370
7.3.27 Anamorphic Prism Systems ..............................................................................371
7.4 Kinematic and Semikinematic Prism Mounting Principles..............................................373
7.5 Mounting Prisms by Clamping ........................................................................................375
7.5.1 Prism Mounts: Semikinematic ..........................................................................375
7.5.2 Prism Mounts: Nonkinematic ..........................................................................384
7.6 Mounting Prisms by Bonding ..........................................................................................387
7.7 Flexure Mounts for Prisms................................................................................................396
References .....................................................................................................................................399
Chapter 8
Design and Mounting Small, Nonmetallic Mirrors, Gratings, and Pellicles
8.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................401
8.2 General Considerations ....................................................................................................402
8.2.1 Mirror Applications ..........................................................................................402
8.2.2 Geometric Configurations ................................................................................402
8.2.3 Reflected Image Orientation ............................................................................402
8.2.4 Beam Prints on Optical Surfaces ......................................................................405
8.2.5 Mirror Coatings ................................................................................................408
8.2.6 Ghost Image Formation by Second-Surface Mirrors........................................411
8.3 Semikinematic Mountings for Small Mirrors ..................................................................415
8.4 Mounting Mirrors by Bonding..........................................................................................425
8.5 Flexure Mounts for Mirrors ..............................................................................................428
8.6 Multiple-Mirror Mounts....................................................................................................433
8.7 Mountings for Gratings ....................................................................................................441
8.8 Pellicle Design and Mounting ..........................................................................................444
References .....................................................................................................................................446
Chapter 9
Lightweight Nonmetallic Mirror Design
9.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................449
9.2 Material Considerations ....................................................................................................450
9.3 Core Cell Configurations ..................................................................................................451
9.4 Cast Ribbed Substrates......................................................................................................453
9.5 Slotted-Strut and Fused Monolithic Substrates ................................................................456
9.6 Frit-Bonded Substrates......................................................................................................463
9.7 Low-Temperature Bonded Substrates ..............................................................................465
9.8 Machined-Core Substrates ................................................................................................466
9.9 Contoured-Back Solid Mirror Configurations ..................................................................470
9.10 Thin Face Sheet Mirror Configurations ............................................................................472
9.11 Scaling Relationships for Lightweight Mirrors ................................................................473
References .....................................................................................................................................477
Chapter 10
Mounting Large, Horizontal-Axis Mirrors
10.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................481
10.2 General Considerations of Gravity Effects ......................................................................481
10.3 V-Type Mounts..................................................................................................................482
10.4 Multipoint Edge Supports ................................................................................................489
10.5 The Ideal Radial Mount ....................................................................................................491
10.6 Mercury Tube Mounts ......................................................................................................492
10.7 Strap and Roller-Chain Mounts ........................................................................................493
10.8 Push–Pull Mounts ............................................................................................................498
10.9 Comparison of Dynamic Relaxation and Finite-Element Analysis Techniques ..............499
References .....................................................................................................................................501
Chapter 11
Mounting Large Vertical-Axis Mirrors
11.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................503
11.2 Ring Mounts......................................................................................................................503
11.3 Air Bag (Bladder) Mounts ................................................................................................506
11.4 Multiple-Point Supports ....................................................................................................509
11.4.1 Three-Point Mounts ..........................................................................................509
11.4.2 Hindle Mounts ..................................................................................................512
11.4.3 Counterweighted Mounts ..................................................................................515
11.4.4 Pneumatic/Hydraulic Mounts............................................................................516
11.5 Metrology Mounts ............................................................................................................518
11.5.1 A 36-Point Pneumatic Metrology Mount ........................................................519
11.5.2 A 27-Point Hydraulic Metrology Mount ..........................................................519
11.5.3 A 52-Point Spring Matrix Metrology Mount....................................................520
11.5.4 Lateral Constraints during Polishing ................................................................524
References .....................................................................................................................................525
Chapter 12
Mounting Large, Variable-Orientation Mirrors
12.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................527
12.2 Mechanical Flotation Mounts ..........................................................................................527
12.3 Hydraulic/Pneumatic Mounts............................................................................................534
12.3.1 Historical Background ......................................................................................534
12.3.2 Gemini Telescopes ............................................................................................537
12.3.3 New Multiple Mirror Telescope........................................................................545
12.4 Center-Mounted Mirrors ..................................................................................................548
12.5 Mounts for Double-Arch Mirrors ....................................................................................553
12.6 Bipod Mirror Mounts ........................................................................................................557
12.7 Thin Face Sheet Mirror Mounts........................................................................................561
12.7.1 General Considerations ....................................................................................561
12.7.2 The Keck Telescopes ........................................................................................566
12.7.3 Adaptive Mirror Systems ..................................................................................571
12.7.3.1 The Advanced Electro-Optical System Telescope ..........................574
12.7.3.2 The MMT Adaptive Secondary Mirror ............................................575
12.8 Mounts for Large Space-Borne Mirrors............................................................................577
12.8.1 The Hubble Space Telescope ............................................................................577
12.8.2 The Chandra X-Ray Telescope ........................................................................579
References .....................................................................................................................................582
Chapter 13
Design and Mounting of Metallic Mirrors
13.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................585
13.2 General Considerations of Metal Mirrors ........................................................................585
13.3 Aluminum Mirrors ............................................................................................................587
13.3.1 Cast Aluminum Mirrors ....................................................................................593
13.3.2 Machined Aluminum Mirrors ..........................................................................593
13.3.3 Welded Aluminum Mirrors ..............................................................................595
13.4 Beryllium Mirrors ............................................................................................................598
13.5 Mirrors Made from Other Metals ....................................................................................607
13.5.1 Copper Mirrors..................................................................................................607
13.5.2 Molybdenum Mirrors ........................................................................................607
13.5.3 Silicon Carbide Mirrors ....................................................................................608
13.6 Mirrors with Foam and Metal Matrix Cores ....................................................................611
13.7 Plating of Metal Mirrors ..................................................................................................623
13.8 Single-Point Diamond Turning of Metal Mirrors ............................................................625
13.9 Conventional Mountings for Metal Mirrors......................................................................636
13.10 Integral Mountings for Metal Mirrors ..............................................................................638
13.11 Flexure Mountings for Larger Metal Mirrors ..................................................................642
13.12 Interfacing Multiple SPDT Components to Facilitate Assembly and Alignment ............648
References .....................................................................................................................................652
Chapter 14
Optical Instrument Structural Design
14.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................659
14.2 Rigid Housing Configurations ..........................................................................................659
14.2.1 Military Binoculars ..........................................................................................659
14.2.2 Commercial Binoculars ....................................................................................662
14.2.3 Tank Periscopes ................................................................................................663
14.2.4 Space-Borne Spectro-Radiometer Cameras......................................................666
14.2.5 Large Aerial Camera Lens ................................................................................669
14.2.6 A Thermally Stable Optical Structure ..............................................................674
14.3 Modular Design Principles and Examples........................................................................675
14.3.1 Injection-Molded Plastic Modules ....................................................................676
14.3.2 A Modular Military Binocular ..........................................................................677
14.3.3 A Modular Spectrometer for Space Application ..............................................682
14.3.4 A Dual-Collimator Module ..............................................................................685
14.4 A Structural Design for High Shock Loading ..................................................................687
14.5 Athermalized Structural Designs ......................................................................................689
14.5.1 Instruments Made from a Single Material ........................................................689
14.5.1.1 The IRAS Telescope ........................................................................689
14.5.1.2 The Spitzer Space Telescope............................................................690
14.5.1.3 A Telescope with Optical and Inter-Component
Interfaces Processed by SPDT ........................................................693
14.5.2 Active Control of Focus ....................................................................................694
14.5.3 Instruments Athermalized with Metering Sructures ........................................695
14.5.3.1 The Orbiting Astronomical Observatory..........................................696
14.5.3.2 The Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite ................698
14.5.3.3 The Deep Imaging Multi-Object Spectrograph ..............................702
14.5.3.4 Athermalization of the Multiangle Imaging
Spectro-Radiometer..........................................................................703
14.5.3.5 Athermalization of the Hubble Space Telescope
Truss Structure ................................................................................706
14.5.3.6 Athermalization of the Galaxy Evolution Explorer ........................709
14.5.4 Athermalization of Refracting Optical Systems ..............................................712
14.6. Geometries for Telescope Tube Structures ......................................................................716
14.6.1 The Serrurier Truss............................................................................................716
14.6.2 The New Multiple-Mirror Telescope ................................................................718
14.6.3 The N-Tiered Truss ..........................................................................................721
14.6.4 The Chandra Telescope ....................................................................................721
14.6.5 Truss Geometries for Minimal Gravitational and
Wind Deflections ..............................................................................................724
14.6.6 Determinate Space Frames................................................................................725
References .....................................................................................................................................729
Chapter 15
Analysis of the Opto-Mechanical Design
15.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................733
15.2 Failure Predictions for Optics ..........................................................................................733
15.2.1 General Considerations ....................................................................................733
15.2.2 Testing to Determine Component Strength ......................................................735
15.2.3 The Weibull Failure Prediction Method............................................................740
15.2.4 The Safety Factor ..............................................................................................742
15.2.5 Time-to-Failure Prediction ................................................................................743
15.2.6 Rule-of-Thumb Stress Tolerances ....................................................................744
15.3 Stress Generation at Opto-Mechanical Interfaces ............................................................748
15.3.1 Point Contacts ..................................................................................................748
15.3.2 Short Line Contacts ..........................................................................................751
15.3.3 Annular Contacts ..............................................................................................756
15.3.3.1 The Sharp Corner Interface..............................................................758
15.3.3.2 The Tangential Interface ..................................................................759
15.3.3.3 The Toroidal Interface ......................................................................759
15.3.3.4 The Spherical Interface ....................................................................761
15.3.3.5 The Flat Bevel Interface ..................................................................762
15.4 Parametric Comparisons of Annular Interface Types ......................................................762
15.5 Bending Effects Due to Offset Annular Contacts ............................................................764
15.5.1 Bending Stress in the Optical Component........................................................765
15.5.2 Change in Surface Sagittal Depth of a Bent Optic ..........................................767
15.6 Effects of Temperature Changes ......................................................................................767
15.6.1 Radial Effects at Reduced Temperature............................................................768
15.6.1.1 Radial Stress in the Optic ................................................................768
15.6.1.2 Tangential (Hoop) Stress in the Mount Wall ..................................769
15.6.2 Radial Effects at Increased Temperature ..........................................................770
15.6.3 Changes in Axial Preload Caused by Temperature Changes............................770
15.6.3.1 General Considerations ....................................................................770
15.6.3.2 Approximation of K3 Considering Bulk Effects Only ....................772
15.6.3.3 Approximation of K3 Considering Effects Other Than
Bulk Effects ......................................................................................778
15.6.3.3.1 Glass and Metal Surface Deflection Effects ................779
15.6.3.3.2 Retainer Deflection Effects ..........................................779
15.6.3.3.3 Shoulder Deflection Effects..........................................780
15.6.3.3.4 Radial Dimension Change Effects................................780
15.6.3.4 Illustrative Examples of K3 Estimation ............................................780
15.6.4 Estimation of Tensile Contact Stresses in the Lens at
Various Temperatures ........................................................................................781
15.6.5 Advantages of Providing Controlled Axial Compliance in the
Lens or Mirror Mount ......................................................................................784
15.7 Effects of Temperature Gradients ....................................................................................795
15.7.1 Radial Temperature Gradients ..........................................................................798
15.7.2 Axial Temperature Gradients ............................................................................800
15.8 Stresses in Cemented and Bonded Optics Due to Temperature Changes ........................800
15.9 Some Effects of Temperature Changes on Elastomerically
Mounted Lenses ................................................................................................................803
References .....................................................................................................................................806
Appendix A
Units and Their Conversion ..........................................................................................................809
Appendix B
Summary of Methods for Testing Optical Components and
Optical Instruments under Adverse Environmental Conditions
B.1 Cold, Heat, Humidity Testing ..........................................................................................811
B.2 Mechanical Stress Testing ................................................................................................811
B.3 Salt Mist Testing ..............................................................................................................812
B.4 Cold, Low Air Pressure Testing ........................................................................................812
B.5 Dust Testing ......................................................................................................................812
B.6 Drip, Rain Testing ............................................................................................................812
B.7 High-Pressure, Low-Pressure, Immersion Testing ..........................................................813
B.8 Solar Radiation ................................................................................................................813
B.9 Combined Sinusoidal Vibration, Dry Heat, or Cold Testing ..........................................813
B.10 Mold Growth Testing ......................................................................................................813
B.11 Corrosion Testing ..............................................................................................................814
B.12 Combined Shock, Bump, or Free Fall, Dry Heat, or Cold Testing ................................814
B.13 Dew, Hoarfrost, Ice Testing ............................................................................................815
Appendix C
Hardness of Materials
References .....................................................................................................................................817
Appendix D
Glossary
D.1 Units of Measure and Abbreviations Used ......................................................................819
D.2 Prefixes ..............................................................................................................................820
D.3 Greek Symbol Applications ..............................................................................................820
D.4 Acronyms, Abbreviations, and Other Terms ....................................................................820
Index .........................................................................................................................................827
2014-08-04
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